Canada--part: Yukon Territory, Northwest Territories, British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, Newfoundland, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia; St. Pierre and Miquelon (France); United States of America--part (Alaska--part: Aleutians East Borough, Aleutians West Census Area, Anchorage Borough, Bethel Census Area, Bristol Bay Borough, Denali Borough, Dillingham Census Area, Fairbanks North Star Borough, Haines Borough, Juneau Borough, Kenai Peninsula Borough, Ketchikan Gateway Borough, Kodiak Island Borough, Lake and Peninsula Borough, Mantanuska-Susitna Borough, North Slope Borough, Prince of Wales-Outer Ketchikan Census Area, Sitka Borough, Skagway-Noonah-Angoon Census Area, Valdez-Cordova Census Area, Wrangell-Petersburg Census Area, Yakutat Borough, Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area); Washington, Oregon, California, Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas, Louisiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississipppi, Alabama, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Maine, New York Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Maryland, District of Columbia, Delaware; Bermuda (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)

How is the land laid out?

In the farthest northwest bordering the Arctic Ocean is the North Slope plain, bounded southward by the Brooks Range of the Rocky Mountains which are partly in the area. Farther south are lowlands of the central Yukon River, North America's third longest. The Kuskokwin Mountains are flanked southward by a river with almost the same name, followed by the Alaska Range, which is topped by Mount McKinley,¹ rising over 6000 meters. A small river separates these from the Wrangell Mountains which connect in the southwest corner of Yukon Territory to the coastal ranges: Mounts Logan and Blackburn are among those topping 5000 meters. These coastal mountains are extended southwest in the Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian Islands, and southeast along the Alaska-British Columbia border, and include the Alexander Archipelago. Behind the Coastal Mountains are the headwaters of the Yukon. The complex of mountains in western Canada is collectively called the Western Cordillera, and includes the Rocky and Coastal Mountains and ranges between. This zone grows wider farther south in the United States and is divided into the Pacific Mountain System, the Intermontane Plateaus and the Rocky Mountain System. The tall ranges of the Pacific System include the Cascades and the Sierra Nevada. The northern range includes subduction volcanoes like Mount Ranier and Mount Shasta while the Sierra boasts Mount Whitney. The Intermontane Plateaus include the Basin and Range Province which is topped by Boundary Peak in the White Mountains. The Middle Rocky Mountains also rise above 4000 meters, notably at Gannett Peak, Wyoming and Kings Peak, Utah. The Columbia-Snake River system starts here and twists its way to the Pacific. The Southern Rockies include numerous high crests with Mount Elbert, Colorado, the tallest, and Wheeler Peak, New Mexico, the farthest south. Emerging from this continental rooftop the Colorado River flows southwest across the Basin and Range Province, cutting the Grand Canyon, and leaving the region near its southwest corner; this is the continent's ninth longest river. The Rio Grande, ranking fifth, heads due south from here before forming the United States's border in its trip to the Gulf of Mexico.

Returning to the Arctic, great flatlands stretch for thousands of miles southeastward starting at the Beaufort Sea and leaving the area at the Texas-Coahuila border.

To their north this area includes Banks and parts of Victoria and Melville Islands.² These are part of the Northern Interior Lowlands.

The Interior Plains's eastern edge is marked by the continent's largest³ lakes: Great Bear, with its three peninsulas; Great Slave, which is pronounced as though spelled with a final 'y'; Athabasca, in northeast Alberta; Winnipeg in southern Manitoba; the southeastern corner of Superior so that Upper Michigan is included; and the northern edge of Lake Huron. The area stretches just beyond the northeast corner of Lake Ontario to include the beginnings of the St. Lawrence River. Lakes Michigan and Erie are also entirely included in the area. Several of North America's longest⁴ river systems are partly in the area: The MacKenzie⁵ flowing into the Beaufort Sea; the Saskatchewan⁶ which empties into Lake Winnipeg; the Missouri⁷ which dumps into the Mississippi; the Mississippi, whose upper course is entirely in the plains; and the Arkansas, which crosses the plains on its journey between the Rockies and the Interior Highlands.

On the south shores of Hudson Bay lie another piece of the northern interior lowlands. These continue eastward out of this area. Lake Winnipeg's outflow, the Nelson River, passes through this band.

The Canadian Shield comprises much of central and eastern Canada and lies just east and north of the interior plains and north of the Great Lakes. Its southeasternmost point reaches the banks of the St. Lawrence not far northeast of Lake Ontario. Its most notable hydrologic features are the lakes that mark its boundary with the interior plains, and the Nelson River that drains one of them. Labrador is also in the Canadian Shield.

In the center of the United States are the interior highlands, just southeast of a portion of the Mississippi and traversed by the Arkansas River.

East of the interior plains are the Appalachian Highlands extending from central Alabama through the Maritime Provinces, and including the St. Lawrence Valley at the Québec-Ontario borderlands. The continent's sixth largest island, Newfoundland, is in this zone.

Lastly, a great lowland, the Atlantic Coastal Plain extends from Cape Cod through southern Texas. Passing through are the lower course of the Mississippi--with its huge irregular delta along the shore and its interior Delta just south of where the Arkansas adds its waters; and the Rio Grande--marking the Texas-Mexican border.

Who lives there?

More than three in four people speak English as a first language, and many more as a second language. Spanish is the only significant competitor but is spoken by less than one in ten.

There are many cities with metropolitan populations over one million in Anglo-North America. For the ones within the United States of America, see the table.

The largest city in western Canada is Vancouver.

The largest city in the Prairie Provinces is Edmonton.

Toronto is the largest city in Ontario.

Who was there before?

Humans arrived in the area from western Alaska, probably when it was connected to Siberia due to lower sea levels. This happened about 30,000 years ago according to the prevaling view but dating is uncertain. Humans spread south on the eastern side of the Rockies, but perhaps also by other routes.¹¹

Before Europeans arrived a great variety of peoples lived in America. Some people believe most of them are lingustic relatives. Everyone agrees that the Na-Dene and Eskimo-Aleut languages are two groups distinct from the others. The latter arrived in a series of migrations starting about 3000 years ago and continuing until 700 to 1000 years ago. The Na Dene arrived 3000 to 8000 years ago.

The Eskimo-Aleuts just before European contact lived around the edges of Alaska, the Beaufort Sea Coast and the east coast of Labrador. Many still live in these areas. They also lived beyond the area covered here--see the rest of Alaska, Nunavut and Greenland for descriptions of the Yupik and Inuit. Aleut is and was spoken in Alaska's southwest peninsula and islands.

The Na-Dene languages include the Athapascan group, Tlingit, Eyak and perhaps Haida. The Athapascan group was spoken in two distinct areas:¹² I. Much of inland northwestern Canada and Alaska; II. Parts of the American southwest from Arizona to Texas. Tlingit, Eyak and Haida were spoken in southeastern Alaska and the Queen Charlotte Islands. There are still about 200 speakers of Tlingit.

The Athapascan languages have more speakers--though still relatively few. Navajo is spoken by more than 100,000; the Apache dialects by 15,000; Chepewyan by five and a half thousand; Carrier by almost 4000; and Slave--pronounced like Slavey--by about 2000.

Wakashan languages were spoken in parts of British Columbia

Salishan languages were spoken in the U.S.'s northwest and in British Columbia. Secret societies were part of the local former religion. In the late 19th century Somohalla founded the Indian Shaker Church which included the role of Dreamers; it was a blend of Christianity and indiginous folk ways. In the late 18th century smallpox, and in the early 19th century, influenza, reduced indiginous populutions in this area.

Kutenai was spoken in souteastern British Columbia. Some consider it an isolate; others an Uto-Aztecan language.

The Chimakuan languages were spoken near Puget Sound.

The Penutian languages--in the narrower sense¹³--were spoken from British Columbia (Tsimshian) to southern California (Yokuts languages). Smallpox and measles in the early 19th century killed many. There are few or no current speakers.

The two Yuki languages were also spoken in northern California. Two languages that are sometimes lumped together along with the Algonquian Group--Yorok and Wiyot--were also spoken in the top of the Pacific coast state.

One northern California former religion included the Kuksu cult and god impersonation rites.

The Hokan languages are spoken in three distinct areas north of Mexico: California (among other groups), western and central Arizona (surrounded by speakers of Uto-Aztecan and Na Dene languages) and along the lower Rio Grande in Texas. The Arizonans are thought by some to be descendents of the early Patayan physical culture.

Uto-Aztecan languages are spoken in three distinct areas north of Mexico: I. much of the arid southwest of the United States but northwest of Navajo lands and north of Yuman lands; II. In the Sonoran Desert; III. and in west central Texas, surrounded by Apache lands. Among the languages which still have a few thousand speakers are Ute, Comanche, Hopi, Shoshone and Northern Paiute. Some theorize that the Hopi, amont others, are descendents of the Anasazi physical culture (100 C.E. to the beginning of the second millenium). The Hopi religion includes a belief in benevolent spirits: katchinas. The Pima group is similarly speculated to be descendents of the Hohokan physical culture that ended about 1500 C.E. Smallpox and cholera killed many in the first half of the 19th century. Two post-contact religions arose among these groups and spread geographically: I. The Comanches spread peyote use northward where--in Indian Territory and among divers groups--the Native American Church was founded by Quanah Parker; II. Wovoka, a Paiute, founded the Ghost Dance Religion, which futilely resisted Anglo dominance and ended in its adherants deaths at Wounded Knee, South Dakota.

In northern New Mexico there is a linguistic group distantly related to the Uto-Aztecan languages: the Kiowa-Tanoan. These are also said to be descendents of the Anasazi. Their pre-contact ways include fertility rites and masked dances. A resistance religion led by Pope led to a briefly successful rebellion against Spanish conquerors in the 17th century.

Keres, in the same vicinity, is a language isolate.

Another language isolate, the Karankawa was spoken on the Gulf coast of Texas farther southwest than Galveston Bay.

The Algonquian languages occupied much of Canada--south of the Athabascans and Inuit and east of the Rocky Mountains--as well as the northeastern United States, the western Great Lakes area and parts of the High Plains.¹⁴ Today's speakers include about 70,000 Cree; 80,00 Ojibwa; 9,000 Blackfoot; 2,000 Cheyenne; and 8,000 Micmac (plus others in Quebec). Disease much reduced their original numbers: smallpox in a series of plagues starting in the 17th century; typhoid in the 18th century; and tuberculosis in the late 19th. The Great Lakes area's former religion included medicine societies and calumet dances. Resistance religions included: the Delaware Prophet led by an Ottawa chief named Pontiac; and the Shawnee Prophet--the 'rebel' leader Tecumseh's rebellion.

Beothuk, a language isolate, was spoken in Newfoundland.

In the southeastern United States is one group and several other languages that are sometimes said to combine with Algonquian languages, Wiyot and Yurok into a larger assembly. They are the Muskogean Group plus Natchez, Atakapa, Chitimacha, Tunica and Tonkawa. In the area one former religion included the southeastern harvest festival and rite of new fire. Another was the Natchez royal cult and sun worship. The Natchez were the last representative of a mound-building culture in the Mississippi valley, but--unlike those of their immediate predecessors--Natchez relgious objects do not indicate a focus on death. Four of the Muskogean 'tribes' were forcibly removed to Oklahoma by a southern U.S. warlord, later elected president for his popular genocide.¹⁵

Timucuan, a language isolate, was spoken in the Florida peninsula.

Siouan languages were spoken west of the Mississippi in a large belt across the plains. They moved west across the great river in the 1300's, the lands having been emptied in the century before. The area's old religion included the Plains Vision Quest, Sun Dance and Sacred Pipe. A post contact resistance religion was led by the Winnebago Prophet. Smallpox plagues throughout the 19th century reduced their numbers.

Two groups and a language are sometimes lumped in with the Siouan to form a macro-group. I. The Iroquoian Group surrounded Lakes Ontario and Eire and the inland eastern United States west of the Algonquians. The groups in the north vanished due to disease and war in the 16th and 17th centuries. There are still about 10,000 Cherokee speakers, despite their falling victim to the southern U.S. warlord who also relocated four Muskogean 'tribes'. Most members of the five civilized 'tribes' of New York were killed by Euro-Americans in the Revolutionary War. Their former religion included the False Face Society and Midwinter Ceremony. A post contact development was the accomodationist Handsome Lake Longhouse religion. II. The Caddoan Group has a similar history to the Siouan but lived further south. III. The Catawba language was spoken in South Carolina. A smallpox epidemic in the 18th century killed those Catawba who had survived massacres organized by the British governor of the colony.

In the 16th century Europeans began to arrive, to stay in great numbers, soon bringing with them African slaves--often via Caribbean islands. The Spanish took over first Florida, then the Rio Grande basin and lastly California, killing, enslaving and forcibly converting indiginous peoples living near their settlements.

The French--fewer and less racist--spread from the Maritime Provinces down the St. Lawrence, through the Great Lakes and the eastern portion of the Mississippi River system.

Much later the Russians settled southeast Alaska and further south, but the government lost interest in its colonists.

The English colonized the eastern shores north of Florida--forcing out the rival settlements of Dutch and Swedes. Through disease and war they exterminated coastal peoples and confined the French to Quebec and Louisiana. During the 19th century the Anglo-Americans pushed westward, violently displacing both indiginous peoples and their rival Europeans, and producing by the beginning of the 20th century the current pattern. They brought millions of Africans to the southeast and they too became English -speaking Christians. Millions of Europeans of many cultures arrived and were assimulated, though the proportion of Catholic Chrisitans increased. During the 20th century Spanish-speaking immigrants moved north from Puerto Rico and Mexico, and Spanish became an ever more significant minority language. But most off the surviving indiginous people--save in the desert southwest--switched to English, and even many of the non-English speakers adopted Christianity.

Within the area

Western Canada and Alaska
Washington
Oregon
California
Idaho, Montana, Wyoming and Colorado
Nevada
Utah
Arizona and New Mexico
Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba
Minnesota and the Dakotas
Nebraska, Kansas, Iowa and Missouri
Oklahoma
Texas
Louisiana, Arkansas, Mississippi and Alabama
Ontario
Wisconsin
Illinois
Michigan
Indiana and Ohio
Virginia, West Virginia, Kentucky, Maryland, Delaware and D.C.
Carolinas and Tennessee
New York, New England and the Maritime Provinces
Pennsylvania and New Jersey
Georgia
Florida

Footnotes

1. Also called Mount Denali.
2. North American rankings: Victoria, 4 (tenth in world); Banks, 8; and Melville, 10.
3. North American rankings: Superior, 1 (second in world); Huron, 2 (fourth or fifth in world); Michigan, 3 (fifth or sixth in world); Great Bear, 4 (ninth in world); Great Slave, 5 (tenth in world); Erie, 6; Winnipeg, 7; Ontario, 8; and Athabasca, 10.
4. Rankings: St. Lawrence, 4; Upper Mississippi, 6; Nelson-Saskatchewan, 7 and the Arkansas, 8; the Mississippi-Missouri-Red Rock is the world's third longest.
5. The Finlay flows within the Rocky Mountains to Williston Lake. That outflows as the Peace, which leaves the mountains and flows into the Slave River. That flows into the Great Slave Lake which empties into the MacKenzie.
6. It starts in the bountains as the Bow. This flows to the South Saskatchewan which joins the northern branch to form the Saskatchewan, which flows to Lake Winnipeg and the lake empties via the Nelson River.
7. The Missouri's headwaters are in the Rocky Mountains. This river stays always in or near the plains once leaving the Rockies, and enters the Mississippi, which flows along, and then south of, the plains before reaching the Gulf of Mexico.
8. A tributary of the Colorado.
9. Ciudad Juárez in Spanish; formerly El Paso del Norte, or in English: Northern Pass.
10. Part of the Interior Plains.
11. A hypothesized Pacific coastal migration, partly by boats, helps explain how humans could reach South America from Siberia as quickly as some datings demand.
12. There were also Athapascan languages in northern California.
13. Excluding the Mayan, Mixe-Zaquean and Totonacan families, and excluding Zuni and Huave. It includes the Sahoptin-Nez Pierce Group.
14. Much of the Great Plains were depopulated in the 13th century. Algonquians, among others, moved in in the 14th century from the northeast and east.
15. The relocations included intentionally inadequate food and blankets, a forced pace and cholera epidemics.